# Arabic Chatbot Guide: Dialects, Arabizi and How to Test

> What an Arabic chatbot must understand (Gulf dialect, Arabizi, Arabic mixed with English), the UAE-built models, and a 12-message test to run before you buy.

**Canonical HTML page:** https://www.protechnology.ae/arabic-chatbot-guide-uae
**Source:** PRO TECHnology Co. L.L.C., Dubai, United Arab Emirates

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AI Solutions · Guide

# Arabic Chatbots Explained: Dialects, Arabizi and How to Test One Before You Buy

Published 22 October 2026 · By the PRO TECHnology AI Solutions team

Most chatbots can reply in formal Arabic. Far fewer understand the way customers in the Gulf actually type. This guide explains the difference and gives you a test you can run on any chatbot in about fifteen minutes.

An Arabic chatbot is software that reads customer messages in Arabic and replies in Arabic, usually on a website, in an app or on WhatsApp. Most new ones run on a large language model (LLM), the same kind of AI behind ChatGPT, instead of a fixed menu of scripted answers. The hard part is rarely Arabic itself. It is the way people write it: in dialect, in Latin letters and digits, and mixed with English in the same sentence.

This guide is for UAE businesses choosing or reviewing a chatbot, and for anyone wondering why “speaks Arabic” can mean very different things. It explains what makes Arabic difficult, which models sit behind Arabic chatbots (including two built in Abu Dhabi), what changed on WhatsApp in 2026, and how to test a chatbot on your own customers’ messages.

- **Written for** Customer service, marketing and IT teams in the UAE and the Gulf

- **Reading time** About 12 minutes

- **You get** A 12-message test script with what a pass looks like

- **Division** [AI Solutions](https://www.protechnology.ae/enterprise-ai)

What the chatbot has to read

- **Customer typed (Arabizi)** mumkin a**3**adel maw**3**ed el delivery la yom il jum**3**a?

- **The same words in Arabic script** ممكن أعدّل موعد الـ delivery ليوم الجمعة؟

- **What it means** Can I move my delivery to Friday?

- **Why it is hard** Latin letters, the digit 3 standing for the letter ‘ayn, Gulf dialect and an English word in one line.

**WhatsApp chat**Customer and an AI assistant

Customermumkin a3adel maw3ed el delivery la yom il jum3a?

ArabiziGulf dialectIntent: reschedule delivery

AI assistantأكيد. يوم الجمعة عندنا موعدين: الساعة ١٠ الصبح أو ٤ العصر. أي وقت يناسبك؟Sure. Friday has two slots, 10 am or 4 pm. Which suits you?

Customer4 a7san, shukran

AI assistantتم. موعد التوصيل يوم الجمعة الساعة ٤ العصر، وبنرسل لك تذكير قبلها بساعة.Done. Delivery is booked for Friday at 4 pm, with a reminder an hour before.

**Voice works the same way.** On a phone call, speech recognition turns the dialect into text first.

An illustrative exchange, written for this guide: a customer types Gulf Arabic in Latin letters (Arabizi) mixed with English, and the assistant answers in Arabic. It is not a recording of a real customer.

## Key takeaways

- "Speaks Arabic" often means formal Arabic. UAE customers usually type in dialect, in Arabizi or mixed with English, so test for those.
- Arabizi writes Arabic in Latin letters and uses digits for sounds English lacks, such as 3 for the letter ع and 7 for ح.
- Arabic chatbots run on global multilingual models, Arabic-first models such as the UAE's Jais and Falcon Arabic, or a mix. The system around the model matters as much as the model.
- Test with real customer messages: dialect, Arabizi, Arabic digits, spelling variants, names, a language switch, a question it cannot answer and a request for a person.
- On WhatsApp, Meta's rules since 15 January 2026 allow AI that serves your own customers but not general-purpose AI assistants.

## What is an Arabic chatbot?

An Arabic chatbot answers customers in Arabic in a chat window: on your website, in your app, on WhatsApp or on Instagram. There are two broad kinds. Older **rule-based** bots match keywords or offer buttons and menus, and reply with text someone wrote in advance. **AI chatbots** built on a large language model read free text, work out what the customer wants and write a reply. Good ones answer from your own information, such as prices, opening hours and policies, which the system looks up before it replies, rather than from whatever the model happened to learn in training.

The same brain can also answer the phone. A voice assistant adds speech recognition, which turns the caller's words into text, and a synthetic voice for the reply. Everything in this guide about dialects applies to voice too, with one extra step that can go wrong: hearing the words correctly.

*Rule-based and AI chatbots compared*

| Question | Rule-based chatbot | AI (LLM) chatbot |
|---|---|---|
| How it understands | Keywords, buttons and fixed menus | Reads the whole message, including phrasing it has not seen before |
| Dialect and Arabizi | Only the exact words someone added to its list | Often understands them, but quality varies widely between systems |
| Replies | Pre-written text | Written on the spot, ideally from your own approved information |
| Main risk | Customers get stuck in menus | Confident wrong answers if it is not limited to your information |
| Good fit | A few simple, fixed tasks | Varied questions in mixed languages |

## Why Arabic is harder for chatbots than English

Most chatbots are tested first in English, and most of the Arabic text they learned from is formal written Arabic. Customers do not write to a business the way a newspaper does. Five things trip chatbots up.

### Formal Arabic and the dialects

Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) is the shared written language of news, government and books across the Arab world. Everyday speech, and most chat, is in a dialect: Gulf (Khaleeji, including Emirati), Egyptian, Levantine, Iraqi and the Maghrebi dialects of North-West Africa, among others. The differences reach everyday words. “I want” is أريد in MSA, أبي or أبغى in the Gulf, عايز in Egypt and بدي in the Levant. “Now” is الآن in MSA and الحين in the Gulf. A UAE business hears all of them, because its customers come from across the region.

### Arabizi: Arabic in Latin letters

Arabizi (also called Franco-Arabic or Arabic chat alphabet) writes Arabic words in Latin letters, with digits standing in for Arabic sounds that have no English letter. It grew up on phones and keyboards without Arabic script and is still common in chat, especially among younger customers. The digits are chosen because they look like the Arabic letter.

*Common Arabizi digits (usage varies by country and by writer)*

| Digit | Arabic letter | Example |
|---|---|---|
| 2 | ء (hamza, a glottal stop) | so2al (سؤال, question) |
| 3 | ع (ayn) | maw3ed (موعد, appointment) |
| 5 | خ (kha) | 5abar (خبر, news) |
| 6 | ط (ta, emphatic) | 6ayeb (طيب, OK), common in the Gulf |
| 7 | ح (ha, from the throat) | a7san (أحسن, better) |
| 9 | ص (sad) for many Gulf writers, ق (qaf) for some others | 9a7 (صح, correct): one digit, two possible letters |

### Arabic and English in the same sentence

In the UAE, where most residents are not Emirati and English is the common working language, customers switch between Arabic and English mid-sentence: “Hi, abi a-book appointment yom il a7ad”. Linguists call this code-switching. A chatbot has to follow the meaning across both languages and then decide which language to answer in.

### Script, spelling and number traps

- Arabic runs right to left, but numbers, English words and links inside it run left to right, so replies can display in the wrong order if the system is careless.
- Many customers type Arabic-Indic digits (٠١٢٣٤٥٦٧٨٩) for order numbers and phone numbers. The chatbot must read ٤٥٨٢١ as 45821.
- Spelling varies: hamza is often dropped (اريد for أريد), and the endings ة and ه or ى and ي are used interchangeably.
- Names and places have many spellings in both scripts: Mohammed, Muhammad and Mohamed; Jumeirah, Jumeira, جميرا and جميرة.
- Short vowels are usually left out of written Arabic, so the same letters can be different words, and the chatbot has to use context.

### Less training data in dialect

Large language models learn from text, and far more formal Arabic is written down than dialect, which has no standard spelling. Research bears this out. A 2023 evaluation of ChatGPT and GPT-4 found both weaker on dialects than on MSA. A 2026 study from MBZUAI in Abu Dhabi found every model it tested did worse in dialect, although the largest models came close on multiple-choice questions and small models dropped the most. Another study, published in 2025, found that models often understand dialect but are reluctant to write it, and answer in formal Arabic instead. This is why a chatbot can look fluent in a demonstration and still misread a real customer, or reply in stiff formal Arabic.

## Which AI models power Arabic chatbots?

A chatbot is a system built around a language model. The model is the part that reads and writes; the system around it decides what information it can use, what it is allowed to do, and when a person takes over. For Arabic, vendors usually take one of three routes.

1. **A global multilingual model** from one of the large AI companies. These are strong in formal Arabic and many handle Gulf dialect reasonably well, but results vary between dialects and between models.
2. **An Arabic-first model**, trained with a much larger share of Arabic text. Several have been built in the region, including two in Abu Dhabi.
3. **A mix**, with one model for understanding and another for writing, or a smaller model trained on the business's own conversations.

The best-known Arabic-first models come from the UAE and Saudi Arabia: Jais and Falcon Arabic, both developed in Abu Dhabi, and Saudi Arabia's ALLaM. Jais and Falcon both released new Arabic models in October 2026.

*Arabic-first language models from the region, as described by their developers (checked 22 October 2026)*

| Model | Built by | What to know |
|---|---|---|
| Jais (UAE) | Inception, a G42 company, with Mohamed bin Zayed University of Artificial Intelligence (MBZUAI) and Cerebras | First released in August 2023 with 13 billion parameters. Jais 2 (December 2025) is described as covering dialects and Arabizi, and Jais 3 (October 2026) spans 0.9 to 375 billion parameters. Weights are open under the Apache 2.0 licence, and there is a public chat app. |
| Falcon Arabic (UAE) | Technology Innovation Institute (TII), Abu Dhabi | Falcon Arabic (May 2025) is a 7 billion parameter model built on Falcon 3. Falcon-H1-Arabic (January 2026, 3, 7 and 34 billion parameters) names Gulf, Levantine, North African and Egyptian dialects, and Falcon-Emirati (October 2026) was trained on Emirati content. Open to try in TII's Falcon chat; we found no public weights for the Arabic models. |
| ALLaM (Saudi Arabia) | National Center for Artificial Intelligence at the Saudi Data and AI Authority (SDAIA) | Announced in 2023. A 7 billion parameter preview has open weights, and a 34 billion parameter version powers HUMAIN Chat, launched in August 2025 by HUMAIN, a company owned by the Public Investment Fund. |

If a vendor quotes a leaderboard, ask which one and what it measures. The Open Arabic LLM Leaderboard, run by 2A2I, TII and Hugging Face, mostly scores multiple-choice knowledge questions in formal Arabic, plus safety and answering from documents. Inception's AraGen leaderboard uses a judge model to score written answers. Stanford's HELM Arabic, published in December 2025, found the Arabic-specific open models it tested trailed the best general open model. Developers' own scores are claims until someone else repeats them, and none of these tests uses your customers' messages. A high score in formal Arabic says little about Arabizi or a voice note in Emirati dialect.

The practical point: do not choose a chatbot by the model's name alone. Two products on the same model can behave very differently depending on how they are set up, and the only test that matters is how the whole system handles your customers.

## Can ChatGPT speak Arabic, and is that enough for a business?

Yes, ChatGPT and the other general assistants read and write Arabic, and you can ask them to answer in Gulf dialect. For personal use, that is often all you need. A chatbot that speaks for your business has a longer list of jobs:

- answer from your own prices, stock, policies and opening hours, and say when it does not know;
- connect to the systems that do the work, such as bookings, orders, delivery tracking or a CRM;
- keep a consistent tone that suits your brand in both Arabic and English;
- hand the conversation to a person, with its history, when the customer asks or the bot is unsure;
- handle personal data in line with UAE law and your own policies;
- run on the channels your customers use, within each channel's rules (see WhatsApp below).

That is the difference between an assistant that can speak Arabic and an Arabic chatbot you can put in front of customers.

## How to test an Arabic chatbot: a 12-message script

Run these messages on any chatbot you are considering, including the one you already have. Send each one in a new chat, then try a few in a single conversation to see whether it keeps track. Better still, add twenty real messages from your own WhatsApp or email, with names and numbers removed. The examples below use a delivery business; swap in your own products and places.

*Arabic chatbot test script. Send the message in column two; the third column describes a pass.*

| Test | Send this | A pass looks like |
|---|---|---|
| 1. Gulf dialect | أبي أعرف كم سعر التوصيل لدبي مارينا؟I want to know how much delivery to Dubai Marina costs. | Understands أبي as "I want" and answers the delivery price in natural Arabic, not stiff formal text. |
| 2. Arabizi | mumkin a3ref el as3ar?Can I know the prices? | Reads the 3 as ع, understands the question and answers about prices. |
| 3. Arabic and English mixed | Hi, abi a-book appointment yom il a7adHi, I want to book an appointment on Sunday. | Offers Sunday slots without asking the customer to choose a language first. |
| 4. Arabic-Indic digits | رقم الطلب ٤٥٨٢١، وين وصل؟Order number 45821, where has it got to? | Reads the order number as 45821 and looks it up, or asks a sensible check question. |
| 5. Spelling without hamza | اريد الغاء الطلبI want to cancel the order. | Understands it as أريد إلغاء الطلب and starts your cancellation process. |
| 6. Places and names | delivery to jumeira 3 please | Matches Jumeirah 3 however it is spelt, in either script. |
| 7. Formal Arabic | السلام عليكم، أود الاستفسار عن ساعات العملPeace be upon you, I would like to ask about your opening hours. | Answers correctly and politely in formal Arabic. Formal messages still arrive, often from older customers and government. |
| 8. Language follows the customer | Start in English, then switch to Arabic | Switches to Arabic when the customer does, and stays consistent. |
| 9. Something it should not know | Ask for the price of a product you do not sell | Says it cannot find it or offers a person. It must not invent a product or a price. |
| 10. Ask for a person | ابي اكلم موظفI want to talk to a member of staff. | Hands over promptly, in Arabic, and the staff member sees the conversation so far. |
| 11. Personal data | Send a made-up Emirates ID number without being asked | Does not repeat it back or ask for more personal data than the task needs. |
| 12. Voice, if offered | Call and say test 1 out loud | Hears the dialect correctly, answers the question and reads back names and numbers accurately. |

Score each test pass or fail and write down the reply. Treat any fail on tests 9 to 11 as serious whatever the overall score: inventing answers, trapping customers and mishandling personal data cost more than an awkward phrase.

**Tip:** ask a colleague who grew up speaking a Gulf dialect to read the Arabic replies. A reply can be correct and still sound like a translated letter, and customers notice.

## Arabic chatbots on WhatsApp: what Meta allows

Businesses reach customers on WhatsApp through the WhatsApp Business Platform, either directly with Meta or through a solution provider. Meta changed its terms from 15 January 2026: providers of AI models may not use the platform when AI is the “primary (rather than incidental or ancillary) functionality” on offer. In plain terms, a general-purpose AI assistant that people chat to about anything cannot run on WhatsApp in the UAE. Meta has made paid exceptions only in a few markets, such as the European Economic Area, Brazil and Türkiye.

A business’s own customer-service assistant is a different case. The terms allow a business to use an AI provider as its solution provider, and Meta told TechCrunch the change does not affect businesses that use AI to serve their customers. Answering questions, taking bookings and tracking orders for your own customers is fine. Two details to put to any vendor: WhatsApp conversation data may not be used to train AI models in general, only to fine-tune a model that only your business uses; and WhatsApp’s own message charges are separate from the chatbot fee.

## Privacy, disclosure and UAE rules

Customer chats are full of personal data: names, phone numbers, addresses and order details. In the UAE the main law is Federal Decree-Law No. 45 of 2021 on the Protection of Personal Data, in force since 2 January 2022. Its executive regulations had still not been issued by mid-2026, and in June 2026 the government announced a new Federal Authority for Artificial Intelligence and Data. Companies in the DIFC and ADGM free zones follow those zones’ own data protection laws. While the detail settles, put the essentials in the contract: where conversations are stored and processed, how long they are kept, who can read them, whether they train any model, and how they are deleted.

On disclosure, the UAE’s AI Ethics Principles and Guidelines say an AI system that can convincingly pass for a human should first tell people it is an AI. They are guidance rather than law, but the advice is sound: say so in the assistant’s first message and offer a person on request. The UAE Charter for the Development and Use of Artificial Intelligence, issued in 2024, also lists transparency among its principles. This section summarises; it is not legal advice, and your sector may have its own rules.

## Questions to ask a chatbot vendor

- Which language model or models does it use, and can that change later without rebuilding everything?
- Will you run our own twenty real messages, including Arabizi, dialect and mixed English, and show us every reply?
- Which dialects has an Arabic speaker on your team reviewed, and how?
- How does it answer from our information, and how do we update prices and policies ourselves?
- What happens when it does not know? Show us the handover to a person, in Arabic, with the history.
- Where are conversations stored and processed, for how long, and are they used to train any model?
- Which channels does it run on, and does WhatsApp use the official WhatsApp Business Platform?
- Can we read transcripts and see the questions it failed to answer?
- How is it priced, and which channel charges (such as WhatsApp message fees) come on top?

## Where PRO TECHnology and xAIa fit

PRO TECHnology's AI Solutions division works with [xAIa](https://www.xaia.ae/), the AI consultancy and implementation arm of the PRO TECHnology Group. xAIa builds AI assistants, which it calls AI employees, that answer customers by phone and on WhatsApp. Its website reports more than 1.5 million production calls and more than 90 languages spoken, including Gulf Arabic dialects, with callers free to switch between Arabic and English. PRO TECHnology's own main line, +971 4 343 5501, is answered by an AI receptionist. Our guide to [voice AI for UAE businesses](https://www.protechnology.ae/voice-ai-uae-business-ai-receptionist-outbound-calls-surveys) covers phone calls in more detail.

**Disclosure:** xAIa is part of the PRO TECHnology Group. The other models, companies and products on this page are named to explain the market, not as an endorsement, and PRO TECHnology has no commercial relationship with them that we know of. We did not run our own comparison of the models named here.

## Frequently asked questions

**What is the best Arabic chatbot?**

There is no single best one. The right chatbot is the one that handles your customers' messages: their dialects, Arabizi, mixed English, your products and your systems. Shortlist two or three, run the 12-message test above plus twenty of your own real messages, and compare the replies side by side.

**Can a chatbot understand the Emirati dialect?**

Good ones handle common Emirati and wider Gulf expressions, such as شحالك (how are you) and وايد (a lot), but quality varies a great deal between systems. Test with Emirati phrases your customers really use and have an Emirati colleague read the replies.

**What is Arabizi?**

Arabizi, also called Franco-Arabic, is Arabic written in Latin letters, with digits for sounds English lacks: 3 for ع, 7 for ح, 2 for ء and 5 for خ. A message such as "mumkin a3ref el as3ar?" means "Can I know the prices?".

**Is Jais better than ChatGPT for Arabic?**

It depends on the task and on the versions compared. Jais was built from the start with a large share of Arabic data, while ChatGPT runs on general multilingual models that are also strong in Arabic. For a business, the system built around the model usually matters more than the model's name, so compare products on your own messages.

**Can an Arabic chatbot run on WhatsApp?**

Yes, through the WhatsApp Business Platform, either directly with Meta or through a provider. Since 15 January 2026 Meta's terms allow AI that serves a business's own customers, such as answering questions, taking bookings and tracking orders, but not general-purpose AI assistants offered on WhatsApp as the product itself.

**Do we have to tell customers they are talking to AI?**

The UAE's AI Ethics Principles and Guidelines say an AI system that can convincingly pass for a human should first tell people it is an AI. The guidelines are not binding, but the advice is sound: label the assistant as AI in its first message and offer a person on request. Check your own sector's rules, which may say more.

**How long does it take to set up an Arabic chatbot?**

A simple FAQ bot can be live in days. An assistant connected to bookings, orders or a CRM takes longer, mainly for integration and testing in Arabic. xAIa's stated delivery method aims for production within 30 days, followed by 30 days of close support.

## شات بوت عربي: ملخص الدليل بالعربية

الشات بوت العربي برنامج يقرأ رسائل العملاء ويرد عليها بالعربية، على الموقع الإلكتروني أو في التطبيق أو على واتساب. وتعمل أغلب الأنظمة الحديثة بنموذج لغوي كبير، وهو النوع نفسه من الذكاء الاصطناعي الذي يقف خلف ChatGPT. والصعوبة ليست في العربية الفصحى، بل في الطريقة التي يكتب بها الناس فعلاً: باللهجة، وبالحروف اللاتينية والأرقام (العربيزي)، ومع كلمات إنجليزية في الجملة نفسها.

هل يكفي شات جي بي تي بالعربي؟ يقرأ ChatGPT العربية ويكتبها، ويمكن أن تطلب منه الرد باللهجة الخليجية، وهذا يكفي غالباً للاستخدام الشخصي. أما الشات بوت الذي يتحدث باسم شركة فيحتاج إلى أكثر من ذلك: أن يجيب من معلومات الشركة نفسها مثل الأسعار والسياسات، وأن يتصل بأنظمة الحجز والطلبات، وأن يحوّل المحادثة إلى موظف عند الحاجة، وأن يلتزم بقوانين حماية البيانات في الإمارات وبقواعد واتساب.

في الإمارات طُوّرت نماذج لغوية تضع العربية أولاً، أبرزها «جيس» (Jais) الذي أطلقته Inception التابعة لمجموعة G42 مع جامعة محمد بن زايد للذكاء الاصطناعي عام 2023، وصدر جيله الثالث في أكتوبر 2026، و«فالكون عربي» (Falcon Arabic) من معهد الابتكار التكنولوجي في أبوظبي، ومنه نموذج «فالكون الإماراتي» المدرَّب على محتوى إماراتي. وفي السعودية طوّرت سدايا نموذج «علّام» (ALLaM) الذي يشغّل تطبيق «هيوماين تشات». لكن النموذج جزء واحد من الحل، والأهم أن تختبر النظام كاملاً على رسائل عملائك الحقيقية.

كيف تختبر الشات بوت قبل الشراء؟ أرسل له رسائل مثل: «أبي أعرف كم سعر التوصيل لدبي مارينا؟» باللهجة الخليجية، و«mumkin a3ref el as3ar?» بالعربيزي، و«رقم الطلب ٤٥٨٢١، وين وصل؟» بالأرقام العربية، و«ابي اكلم موظف» لطلب موظف. النظام الجيد يفهم كل رسالة، ويرد بلغة العميل، ولا يخترع سعراً لا يعرفه، ويحوّل المحادثة إلى موظف مع سجلها كاملاً.

على واتساب، تمنع شروط Meta منذ 15 يناير 2026 المساعدات العامة التي يكون الذكاء الاصطناعي فيها هو الخدمة الأساسية، وتسمح للشركات باستخدام الذكاء الاصطناعي لخدمة عملائها، مثل الرد على الأسئلة والحجوزات وتتبع الطلبات. وفي الإمارات ينظّم المرسوم بقانون اتحادي رقم 45 لسنة 2021 حماية البيانات الشخصية، فاسأل المورّد أين تُخزَّن المحادثات وهل تُستخدم لتدريب النماذج. ومن الممارسات الجيدة أن يعرّف المساعد نفسه بأنه ذكاء اصطناعي في أول رسالة.

يعمل فريق حلول الذكاء الاصطناعي في PRO TECHnology مع شركة xAIa التابعة للمجموعة على مساعدين أذكياء يردون على العملاء بالعربية والإنجليزية عبر الهاتف وواتساب. وللتواصل معنا: ⁦+971 4 343 5501⁩.

## Sources

Model release details come from the developers' own announcements and model cards. Research findings are summarised from the papers listed. Nothing on this page is legal advice.

- [G42: Jais, a 13 billion parameter Arabic and English model, open-sourced (30 August 2023)](https://www.g42.ai/resources/news/meet-jais-worlds-most-advanced-arabic-llm-open-sourced-g42s-inception)
- [G42: Jais family of 20 models, 590 million to 70 billion parameters (5 August 2024)](https://www.g42.ai/resources/news/g42-launches-jais-70b-and-20-other-ai-models-champion-arabic-natural-language-processing)
- [Jais 2: A Family of Arabic-Centric Open Large Language Models (arXiv, July 2026)](https://arxiv.org/abs/2608.13580)
- [Jais 3 model collection, Hugging Face (October 2026)](https://huggingface.co/collections/IFM/jais-3)
- [Middle East AI News: MBZUAI and Inception42 launch Jais 3 (15 October 2026)](https://www.middleeastainews.com/p/mbzuai-inception42-launch-jais-3)
- [Technology Innovation Institute: Falcon Arabic (Hugging Face blog, 21 May 2025)](https://huggingface.co/blog/tiiuae/falcon-arabic)
- [Technology Innovation Institute: Falcon-H1-Arabic (Hugging Face blog, 5 January 2026)](https://huggingface.co/blog/tiiuae/falcon-h1-arabic)
- [Gulf Today: TII launches Falcon-Emirati alongside new Arabic AI models (7 October 2026)](https://www.gulftoday.ae/news/2026/10/07/tii-launches-falcon-emirati-alongside-new-arabic-ai-models)
- [SDAIA: ALLaM-7B-Instruct-preview model card, Hugging Face](https://huggingface.co/humain-ai/ALLaM-7B-Instruct-preview)
- [Arab News: HUMAIN Chat launched, powered by ALLaM 34B (26 August 2025)](https://www.arabnews.com/node/2613023)
- [Hugging Face: Open Arabic LLM Leaderboard v2 (10 February 2025)](https://huggingface.co/blog/leaderboard-arabic-v2)
- [Hugging Face: AraGen leaderboard and the 3C3H measure (4 December 2024)](https://huggingface.co/blog/leaderboard-3c3h-aragen)
- [Stanford CRFM: HELM Arabic (18 December 2025)](https://crfm.stanford.edu/2025/12/18/helm-arabic.html)
- [Khondaker et al.: GPTAraEval, ChatGPT and GPT-4 on Arabic (EMNLP 2023)](https://arxiv.org/abs/2305.14976)
- [Al Kautsar et al.: dialectal versus MSA evaluation of language models (arXiv, April 2026)](https://arxiv.org/abs/2605.00119)
- [Robinson et al.: AL-QASIDA, how well models write dialectal Arabic (Findings of ACL 2025)](https://arxiv.org/abs/2412.04193)
- [Bouamor et al.: The MADAR Arabic Dialect Corpus and Lexicon (LREC 2018)](https://aclanthology.org/L18-1535)
- [Darwish: Arabizi detection and conversion to Arabic (2014)](https://aclanthology.org/W14-3629)
- [Mixat: Emirati and English code-switched speech (MBZUAI, 2024)](https://aclanthology.org/2024.sigul-1.26.pdf)
- [Meta Terms for WhatsApp Business Platform, section on AI providers](https://www.facebook.com/legal/Meta-Terms-for-WhatsApp-Business-Platform)
- [TechCrunch: WhatsApp changes its terms to bar general-purpose chatbots (18 October 2025)](https://techcrunch.com/2025/10/18/whatssapp-changes-its-terms-to-bar-general-purpose-chatbots-from-its-platform/)
- [Meta for Developers: WhatsApp pricing for AI providers](https://developers.facebook.com/documentation/business-messaging/whatsapp/pricing/ai-providers)
- [UAE Government portal: data protection laws](https://u.ae/en/about-the-uae/digital-uae/data/data-protection-laws)
- [Morgan Lewis: UAE establishes Federal Authority for Artificial Intelligence and Data (June 2026)](https://www.morganlewis.com/pubs/2026/06/uae-establishes-federal-authority-for-artificial-intelligence-and-data)
- [UAE AI Ethics Principles and Guidelines (PDF)](https://ai.gov.ae/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/MOCAI-AI-Ethics-EN-1.pdf)
- [UAE Charter for the Development and Use of Artificial Intelligence (PDF, 2024)](https://ai.gov.ae/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/UAEAI-Methaq-EN2-3.pdf)
- [UAE Government portal: fact sheet](https://u.ae/en/about-the-uae/fact-sheet)

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